Install Windows 98 after Windows XP

How can I install Windows 98 after Windows XP?

This procedure assumes that Windows XP is installed on drive C:

Drive C: must be FAT16 or FAT32 to be able to install Windows 98 after XP is already installed. The 98/Me installation routine cannot write to an NTFS partition.

You must have a second hard disk or partition formatted for FAT16/32 in order to be able to install Windows 98/Me.

As always, installing 98/Me to the same partition as Windows XP is Not recommended!

I recommend the use of a Windows 98 Startup disk for this procedure. You should ensure that DEBUG.EXE is on your Startup disk. On a 98 Startup disk, created from Add/Remove Programs, its in the EBD.CAB file on the Startup disk. For a 98 Startup disk created from FAT32EBD.EXE its on the floppy
Installing Windows 98

1.

Use a Win98 Startup disk (with CD support) to boot your computer.
2.

Insert your Win98 CD into the CD Rom drive.
3.

At the A: prompt type X:\Win98\Setup.exe where X: is your CD-ROM drive.
4.

Proceed with the install. When prompted for the install location, you'll see C:\Windows.000. Choose Other directory and change this to the drive you wish to install 98 to and name the folder Windows (or something else if you prefer).
5.

Complete the Win98 install. Allow the computer to boot into Win98.

Repairing the Windows XP Boot Loader

1.

Create a Win98 Startup Disk
2.

Create a Notepad file with the following entries, exactly as shown:


==========================
L 100 2 0 1
N C:\BOOTSECT.DOS
R BX
0
R CX
200
W
Q
==========================


3.

Save the file to the Win98 Startup Disk as READ.SCR
4.

Boot the computer with the Win98 Startup Disk and at the A: prompt type

====================
DEBUG ?READ.SCR
====================
NOTE: CHANGE ? TO > SIGN
Steps 1 - 4 create the BOOTSECT.DOS file needed to boot Win98. You may need to use the ATTRIB C:\BOOTSECT.DOS -S -H -R command if BOOTSECT.DOS already exists and you get an error when trying to recreate it.

5.

Configure your computer to boot from the CD drive. This is done in the BIOS, or your computer may offer the option at startup if it detects a bootable CD. If your computer does not support booting from CD-Rom, you should also be able to boot with a 98 Startup disk, and run WINNT.EXE from the I386 folder of your XP CD.
6.

Insert your XP CD and boot from it.
7.

You'll see some files being copied, then you'll be presented with a choice of installing or repairing an existing installation. Choose Repair.
8.

You'll be asked which XP installation you want to log into. Enter 1. There is usually only one installation.
9.

You'll be prompted for the Administrator password. For Home, the default password is blank, so just hit Enter. For Pro, enter the same password you did during setup for the Administrator account (this is not the same as the password for an Admin level account. It must be the Administrator account password).
10.

At the C:\Windows prompt, type FIXBOOT. You'll be prompted to confirm. Do so.
11.

When FIXBOOT is finished, remove the XP CD and type EXIT and the machine will reboot.
12.

Reconfigure your computer to boot from the hard drive if necessary.

You will now get the XP Boot loader with your choice of operating system.

himachi Setup Guide

When you want to play Counter-Strike via hamachi, often you have error "LAN servers are restricted to local clients (class C)." when you want to join LAN server.This is because the LAN server has different IP range like your hamachi IP.

For example:

a) your friend has IP 5.2.47.58, you have IP 5.2.65.120 => both of you have the same IP range so you won't have problem with class C error

b) your friend has IP 5.2.47.58, you have IP 5.8.65.120 => both of you have different IP range and you will have problem with class C error

Solution is to use "aliases"

!!!!! IT WORKS ONLY WITH VERSION 1.0.0.31 and HIGHER !!!!

- The man who create LAN server must create the file called aliases.txt
- This file aliases.txt must be put into Hamachi's installation directory.

- By this file aliases.txt you will create "alias" for your friend who want to join your LAN server with different IP range like his IP range

- It does not work in reverse due to the pecularities of CS gaming protocol.

- Each line of file aliases.txt contain a pair of IP addresses:

followed by (1 gap between IPs)

- When you created alias for your friend, you have to restart Hamachi (not only press Power OFF and Power ON) !!!

Example when 1 friend want to join my server

I have created LAN server, my IP is 5.1.57.145 => my friend who want to join my LAN server has IP:
5.7.20.110

- his IP has different IP range like my IP, so i need to create "alias" for him
My file aliases.txt contains a pair of IP addresses:

5.7.20.110 5.1.20.110

Example when 3 friends want to join my server

I have created LAN server, my IP is 5.1.57.145 => my friends who want to join my LAN server have IPs:
5.7.20.110
5.11.74.63
5.4.28.33

- their IPs have different IP range like my IP, so i need to create file "aliases" for them
My file aliases.txt contains a pairs of IP addresses:

5.7.20.110 5.1.20.110
5.11.74.63 5.1.74.63
5.4.28.33 5.1.28.33

Summary:

1. Find out IP addresses of your friend who want to join your server
2. Create aliases for them (if their IPs are different IP range like yours IP)
3. Restart Hamachi
4. Create LAN server
5. Play the game :-)

Create LAN Game

1. Join some hamachi network and start the game

2. Choose New Game -> choose the map -> set up your server -> Start

Join LAN Game

1. Join some hamachi network and start the game

2. Choose Find Servers -> LAN -> Connect

If you have error "LAN servers are restricted to local clients (class C)." => your friend who created LAN server did mistake in aliases.txt or forgot to restart Hamachi


Download Hamachi:

www.hamachi.com/

How to Add a Blog to a Web Site PART-2

Oasis Spa and Salon - an Example of How to Add Blog to Web Site

Oasis Spa and Salon in the state of Washington wanted to add a blog to their site, which they call eNews. This was an example of a standards-compliant website, so it was easy to use its existing code base in order to build a blog theme that looks exactly like the original site. This project was completed several months ago. I keep in touch with the salon’s owner and she reports the blog has been a success. If you visit and take a look at it, you can see that she’s using it to drive customer visits to the salon by promoting products, services, and special offers–very smart!

Steve Yastrow - Adding a Blog to a Web Site with a Twist

For Steve Yastrow, a marketing consultant, speaker, and author, we did something a little different. We added a blog, but with a twist. The blog replaced the home page of his original site, and the page navigation on the blog links to the original pages of the old site. There is a bit of a difference in the look and feel between the old site pages and the blog. Eventually, The old site pages may become blog pages.

Possibilities

As you can see, there are a few possibilities for how to do this. There are two other scenarios that are related to adding a blog to a Web site: keeping the blog separate and scrapping the old site altogether in favor of a new site that uses WordPress as a CMS for all pages and content (which people are doing more often). I’ll write more about those options later. Be sure you don’t miss them: subscribe to my blog so you always get the latest.

How to Add a Blog to a Web Site PART-1

The Sticking Point - Original Site Design

The sticking point for adding a blog to a Web site is the existing site’s original design. A lot depends on this. If the site was originally designed using web standards for the separation of code and layout/style and follows a vertically-oriented page layout, it will be quite easy for me to develop a blog design that matches it exactly or that at least bears a strong resemblance to the original.

Even if the original site is using an older code base and is designed using deprecated methods (deprecated is a term we use for methods which are no longer the standard or are acceptable), it can be done. It is accomplished by taking the graphics, color scheme, and fonts from the original site, and then using them to create a standards-compliant WordPress theme.

For sites which have been developed according to standards, the Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) information is reused for the blog, with some changes and additions to accommodate the unique elements of a WordPress blog theme.
Integrating Web Site and Blog

I don’t want to get too technical here, but WordPress themes are made up of a collection of files and images inside of a folder. You upload the folder to your WordPress blog, and switch to the theme in your Presentation admin page. The files collectively are all the elements of a WordPress blog’s structural and visual design. They use special information called template tags, which are used to make your blog do its thing.

By taking your original site’s design and combining it with the CSS and template tags and files of a WordPress theme, I can create a blog design that matches (more or less) your original site. The theme can be created on my own system, so even if you don’t yet have a blog, I can develop the blog’s theme.

Because WordPress needs a database to hold all the information for the blog, a database needs to be created on your Web server. Then, the WordPress software can be installed and configured. Plugins, which enhance and extend WordPress’ functionality, are added. Then the theme can be uploaded and activated.

And now you have a blog added to your Web site!
Other Considerations

There are other considerations. One is that the original site and the blog have to link to each other so that the site’s visitors can easily go back and forth between the two. Often, entire navigation bars and other links are duplicated in the WordPress theme. A link to the blog is added to the original site’s design, and the circuit is complete.

Another is that there can be all kinds of technical glitches where the original site’s hosting configuration may not be very friendly to WordPress. The most common problem I run into is folder write permissions on the Web server. WordPress needs the ability to make changes, or, write to, the blog files. When this permission is denied, several important and necessary WordPress capabilities are blocked. So far, I’ve been able to resolve these issues every time by figuring out the technical solution or by working with my clients’ Web hosting companies.

How To Make a LAN Server

First How To made by another user, Yann Cluchey

Basic info writen by Yann:
When creating a server, it needs to have an IP address and a port. The IP address should be the IP address of the machine it's running on. If you don't know your IP address, right click on network neighborhood and choose properties. Then look at the properties of your TCP/IP dial-up adapter. The port can be whatever you want. Note: To have multiple zones you need a second server running. Although the port does not matter, there must be a difference of no less than 10 between them.

Step One:
Making the basic files First you will need to set up most of the stuff like a regular zone. If you don't know how, go to the How To: Make a Zone page.
Step Two:
Editing the Server.ini OK. In the server.ini file, in the [Misc] section, you need to set the port equal to the Port of your server. In my case, 1010. You also need to set the DefaultLevelFile equal to the name of the level (must be in the server directory). In my case mylevel.lvl.
Step Three:
More editing Next, in the [Password] section, it is handy to set the passwords to something rememberable. I just set the sysop password to 'sysoppass'. Being sysop allows you to edit the game settings while in the game, as well as kick users etc.. When entering the game, enter your name as sysop and password as *sysoppass. Note: You need to add the * before. When in the game, you can press ESC and C to edit stuff.
Step Four:
More...
Next, in the [Billing] section, you need to set the IP equal to the IP address of the machine the server will be running on. In my case: 192.168.0.2. It's also helpful to set a billing password. The ServerName should be set to what you want the server to be called. (This is what would appear in the servers list. Eg. "VIE Alpha whatever"). The Port should MUST be set to 900. Despite the port your server is on. (It's a good idea for your server not to be on that port). You should set the ServerID and the ScoreID to the port of your server. Eg. 1010.
Step Five:
It keeps going on like this.. Finally, in the [Directory] section you need to change the description to something. This is what the user sees when they click on a server in the list. The IP and the Port in this section should be left alone as they refer to the IP and Port of the server which lists all the servers. Namely sscentral.vie.com. But with a lan server, this isn't relevent.
Step Six:
To run the zone Your server is now ready to be run. Run subgame.exe with parameter /nb. IE: subgame /nb. This'll boot the server. (To close it, press Shift + F12 or Ctrl + C). Now, your server should work. If not, contact me. {Me as in Yann or Mine GO BOOM -Insert}
Step Seven:
Getting SubSpac to open it The next thing you need to do is to have it in the list of servers of the game. This should be done for all of the machines which want to access this server (even the server machine itself).
In the subspace directory is the file: Favourite.lst. This contains server information which gets displayed in the server list. When you click on File | Find Servers in subspace, it'll contact sscentral.vie.com and download the list of all servers, with descriptions etc.. So if you have an internet server, you would register yourself with them to have your server name available on their list. Then, you would select servers and add to favourites. This information being saved in favourite.lst.
However, as this is just a lan server, which isn't registered with sscentral (and doens't need to be), you'll have to modify this list manually. If you open this file, it should look like this:
Alpha Zone,192.168.0.3,2000
#The Alpha zone!! Have fun!
Star Wars,192.168.0.3,2010
#Star Wars - USA server
etc..
It's in the format:
ServerName,IP,Port
#Description
ServerName,IP,Port
#Description
etc..
So, just add your own.
Add the name of your server Eg. MyLanServer. Then a comma. Then the IP of the server machine Eg. 192,168.0.2. Then a comma. Then the port of the server. Eg. 1010. Then a new line. Then a #. Then the description.
Mine looks like this:
MyLanServer,192.168.0.2,1010
#This is my Lan server blah blah blah
As I have multiple zones (multiple servers), I have this:
Zone1,192.168.0.2,1010
#Zone1
Zone2,192.168.0.2,1020
#Zone2
The [Billing]:ServerName and [Directory]:Description information in the server.ini file aren't used as this information can only be retrieved via a directory server.
Step Eight:
Extra Info! If someone tries to enter the zone, but it says they do not have the latest version even though they do, you need to make sure that the version is 1.34 AND the version in the server directory is also v1.34.
Step Nine:
If wanting another
When making another server or zone, you just need to copy that same directory and change the relevent port references etc.. It is not necessary to have another copy of the billing server as well. I myself did not use the billing server. It works fine without.

Mobile VoIP-Your Next Generation Mobile Phone, PDA, Pocket PC and Smartphone

Mobile VoIP - Voice On The Go !

Mobile VoIP - (Mobile Voice over Internet Protocol) is the application of voice over IP technology to mobile devices (PDA, Pocket PC or Smartphone).

Mobile VoIP requires a mobile handset that supports, at minimum, high speed IP communications. Most commonly this is using Voice over Wi-Fi or VoWiFi, but the same protocols typically SIP or Jabber can be used over any broadband IP-capable wireless network connection such as the various 3G standards, EVDO rev A. (which is synchronously high speed - both high speed up and down), HSDPA or potentially WiMax.

Mobile VoIP will require a compromise between economy and mobility. For example, Voice over Wi-Fi offers free service but is only available within the coverage area of the Wi-Fi Access Point. High speed services from mobile operators using EVDO rev A. or HSPDA with probably have better audio quality and capabilities for metropolitan-wide coverage including fast handoffs from mobile base station to another, yet it will cost more than the typical Wi-Fi based VoIP service.

Mobile VoIP will become an important service in the coming years as device manufacturers exploit more powerful processors and less costly memory to meet the users' needs for ever-more power in your pocket. Smartphone in mid-2006 are capable of sending and receiving email, browse the web and in some cases watch TV.

The challenge for the mobile operator industry is to deliver the benefits and innovations of IP without losing control of the network service. Users like the Internet to be free and high speed without extra charges for visiting specific sites versus other sites. Delivering mobile VoIP is a service that challenges the most valuable service in the telecommunications industry – Voice. The opportunities, threatens and pace of innovation in the global communications industry.

There are three main technologies used for mobile VoIP:

* UMA - The Unlicensed Mobile Access Generic Access Network, designed to allow VoIP to run over the GSM cellular backbone

* SIP - The standard used by most VoIP services, and now being implemented on mobile handsets

* Skype Protocol - a proprietary modified version of Jabber

Mobile VoIP took a significant step forward in the summer of 2006 when Nokia included not only a SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) stack but a VoIP client in their new E-series dual-mode WiFi handsets (E60, E61, E70). Theses E-series handsets are intended for business users, but Nokia have announced they will release a consumer handset, the N80 Internet edition, in November 2006.

Motorola Mobile Devices and Sony Ericsson have also announced their intention to support VoIP in the future.

Skype are offering their service as a beta trial on certain Windows Mobile devices, and are developing for the Symbian platform.






VoWLAN -Wireless VoIP

VoWLAN- (Voice over Wireless LAN) is the use of a wireless broadband network for the purpose of voice conversation. It’s just like VoIP but over a Wi-Fi network. VoWLAN can be conducted over any internet accessible device, including a Laptop, PDA or the new VoWLAN units which look and function like Cell Phone / Mobile Phone. VoWLAN's major advantages to consumers are cheaper local and international calls, free calls to other VoWLAN units and a simplified integrated billing of both phone and Internet service providers.

Although VoWLAN and 3G have certain feature similarities, VoWLAN is different in the sense that it uses a wireless internet network (typically on 802.11x) rather than a Cell Phone network. Both VoWLAN and 3G are used in different ways.

For example, a company with fixed warehouses or locations would take advantage of their existing Wi-Fi network and use VoIP - (VoWLAN) for employees to communicate each other.

Non-VoWLAN Solution: Another example would be a company that has mobile workers very much like the FedEx delivery person or the CocaCola delivery driver who delivers goods to a store. These workers need to take advantage of 3G type services whereby a cellular company (such like Cingular, Verizon, T-Mobile, Sprint/Nextel) provide data access between the handheld device (Cell Phone / Mobile Phone) and the companies back-end network.

Laptop Vista Partition Data Recovery

Laptop disk data recovery utility supports NTFS, NTFS5, FAT12, FAT16, FAT32, VFAT file system partitions. Notebook hard disk data rescue tool to retrieve lost or inaccessible data, files or folders from root directories, MBR and MFT. Mini hard drive partition restore application support all major type of storage devices including EIDE, IDE, SCSI, SATA and ATA hard disk. Powerful Vista file recovery tool supports all major brands of storage media including Hitachi, Sony, Samsung, SanDisk, Toshiba etc. Professional Vista partition retrieval software can restore damaged information like ppt, doc, txt, gif, mpeg, jpeg, jpg, xls etc. Quick Windows Vista file backup program can help non-technical and technical users without any special technical skill. Vista partition data undelete software rescue erased songs, images, mp3, mp4, audio, video files, photos, images, pictures etc. Windows partition file backup tool recovers data, files or folders in a few minutes from your corrupted hard disk drive. Notebook hard disk data restore utility provides you in-built help option so that you can successfully retrieve data from damaged volume partition. Quick Windows data backup software to restore data, files or folders from previously existing partition in hard drive. Unformat Windows Vista file tool salvage compressed or encrypted password protected files or folders. Vista partition recovery specialist can backup erased or inaccessible data, files and folders from virus attack, hardware failure and bad sector affected hard drive. Features: * Windows partition data recovery solution to retrieve deleted data, files or folders using Shift + Del key. * Laptop files rescue services restores information even after system displays DRIVE IS NOT FORMATTED. * Utility provides user friendly graphical user interface.

How to make your own Vista OEM DVD

This Procedure is only for Those who have SLIC in bios
================================================== ====
Just follow these simple steps to intergrate the Product Key and OEM cert:

1: Create a new text file and copy paste the text below inside and save the file as PID.TXT

[PID]
Value='Enter Product Key Here'

do not enter the brackets i,e use Value=xxxxx-xxxxx-xxxxx-xxxxx

This can be Vista Home Basic, Home Premium, Business, Ultimate OEM key.

2: Now make Folders $OEM$\$$\SYSTEM32\OEM

3: Take your OEM XRM-MS file that matches your key and copy the file to OEM folder

4: Use UltraIso or PowerIso to make iso of your Vista or Vista SP1 DVD,
DO NOT USE ROYALTY OEM DVD, i,e Asus Dell e.c.t as this involves editing .WIM files

5: Open ISO with UltraIso or PowerISO

6: Now add PID.TXT file and $OEM$ folder you created earlier to Vista SOURCES Folder

7: Save ISO and burn it then install

Your Vista will now install and activate
Burn the contents as a bootable DVD and you have your OEM disk!

here are all the OEM certificates and OEM:SLP keys
Download hxxp://www.box.net/shared/i8cor9u04g

How to repair DEAD hard drive! VERY USEFUL

How to repair DEAD hard drive! VERY USEFUL

Hard Drive Repair (Single mistake can corrupt the whole drive, so carefully)

If the problem is a head crash, or the infamous Seagate "stiction" problem it is really not too difficult to fix your own hard drive if you know what to do.

You will require #00 steel wool, paint thinner or gasoline, WD-40, a few hand tools, and about 45 minutes.


First, you need a clean room, so make sure the garage door is closed before you begin. Move those old lawnmower parts off the bench.

Disassemble the sealed unit and carefully wash all parts with the paint thinner or gasoline. Bend the read/write heads out of the way and then disassemble the platter stack.

VERY CAREFULLY buff the platter surfaces with the #00 steel wool. This will remove any existing data, level out any surface defects, and help to redistribute the magnetic media and fill in those irritating "bad sectors" that most drives have.

Reassemble the platter stack, and using a .015" feeler gauge, bend the read/write head back to the platter surface, using the feeler gauge to set the gap. This is a slightly higher gap than the factory uses, but it reduces the chance of head collisions with any dirt you neglected to remove.

Give the head and platters a good shot of WD-40 and reassemble the unit. If your drive has a filter, replace it with a clean section of gauze pad.

All that's left is to low level and DOS format the drive, and you're back

SomE kEyBoaRd shoRTcuTs

I bet no1 knows all the shortcuts

So i posted it...

Hope its helpful


CTRL+C (Copy)
CTRL+X (Cut)
CTRL+V (Paste)
CTRL+Z (Undo)
DELETE (Delete)
SHIFT+DELETE (Delete the selected item permanently without placing the item in the Recycle Bin)
CTRL while dragging an item (Copy the selected item)
CTRL+SHIFT while dragging an item (Create a shortcut to the selected item)
F2 key (Rename the selected item)
CTRL+RIGHT ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next word)
CTRL+LEFT ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous word)
CTRL+DOWN ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next paragraph)
CTRL+UP ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous paragraph)
CTRL+SHIFT with any of the arrow keys (Highlight a block of text)
SHIFT with any of the arrow keys (Select more than one item in a window or on the desktop, or select text in a document)
CTRL+A (Select all)
F3 key (Search for a file or a folder)
ALT+ENTER (View the properties for the selected item)
ALT+F4 (Close the active item, or quit the active program)
ALT+ENTER (Display the properties of the selected object)
ALT+SPACEBAR (Open the shortcut menu for the active window)
CTRL+F4 (Close the active document in programs that enable you to have multiple documents open simultaneously)
ALT+TAB (Switch between the open items)
ALT+ESC (Cycle through items in the order that they had been opened)
F6 key (Cycle through the screen elements in a window or on the desktop)
F4 key (Display the Address bar list in My Computer or Windows Explorer)
SHIFT+F10 (Display the shortcut menu for the selected item)
ALT+SPACEBAR (Display the System menu for the active window)
CTRL+ESC (Display the Start menu)
ALT+Underlined letter in a menu name (Display the corresponding menu)
Underlined letter in a command name on an open menu (Perform the corresponding command)
F10 key (Activate the menu bar in the active program)
RIGHT ARROW (Open the next menu to the right, or open a submenu)
LEFT ARROW (Open the next menu to the left, or close a submenu)
F5 key (Update the active window)
BACKSPACE (View the folder one level up in My Computer or Windows Explorer)
ESC (Cancel the current task)
SHIFT when you insert a CD-ROM into the CD-ROM drive (Prevent the CD-ROM from automatically playing)
Dialog Box Keyboard Shortcuts
CTRL+TAB (Move forward through the tabs)
CTRL+SHIFT+TAB (Move backward through the tabs)
TAB (Move forward through the options)
SHIFT+TAB (Move backward through the options)
ALT+Underlined letter (Perform the corresponding command or select the corresponding option)
ENTER (Perform the command for the active option or button)
SPACEBAR (Select or clear the check box if the active option is a check box)
Arrow keys (Select a button if the active option is a group of option buttons)
F1 key (Display Help)
F4 key (Display the items in the active list)
BACKSPACE (Open a folder one level up if a folder is selected in the Save As or Open dialog box)
m*cro$oft Natural Keyboard Shortcuts
Windows Logo (Display or hide the Start menu)
Windows Logo+BREAK (Display the System Properties dialog box)
Windows Logo+D (Display the desktop)
Windows Logo+M (Minimize all of the windows)
Windows Logo+SHIFT+M (Restore the minimized windows)
Windows Logo+E (Open My Computer)
Windows Logo+F (Search for a file or a folder)
CTRL+Windows Logo+F (Search for computers)
Windows Logo+F1 (Display Windows Help)
Windows Logo+ L (Lock the keyboard)
Windows Logo+R (Open the Run dialog box)
Windows Logo+U (Open Utility Manager)
Accessibility Keyboard Shortcuts
Right SHIFT for eight seconds (Switch FilterKeys either on or off)
Left ALT+left SHIFT+PRINT SCREEN (Switch High Contrast either on or off)
Left ALT+left SHIFT+NUM LOCK (Switch the MouseKeys either on or off)
SHIFT five times (Switch the StickyKeys either on or off)
NUM LOCK for five seconds (Switch the ToggleKeys either on or off)
Windows Logo +U (Open Utility Manager)
Windows Explorer Keyboard Shortcuts
END (Display the bottom of the active window)
HOME (Display the top of the active window)
NUM LOCK+Asterisk sign (*) (Display all of the subfolders that are under the selected folder)
NUM LOCK+Plus sign (+) (Display the contents of the selected folder)
NUM LOCK+Minus sign (-) (Collapse the selected folder)
LEFT ARROW (Collapse the current selection if it is expanded, or select the parent folder)
RIGHT ARROW (Display the current selection if it is collapsed, or select the first subfolder)
Shortcut Keys for Character Map
After you double-click a character on the grid of characters, you can move through the grid by using the keyboard shortcuts:
RIGHT ARROW (Move to the right or to the beginning of the next line)
LEFT ARROW (Move to the left or to the end of the previous line)
UP ARROW (Move up one row)
DOWN ARROW (Move down one row)
PAGE UP (Move up one screen at a time)
PAGE DOWN (Move down one screen at a time)
HOME (Move to the beginning of the line)
END (Move to the end of the line)
CTRL+HOME (Move to the first character)
CTRL+END (Move to the last character)
SPACEBAR (Switch between Enlarged and Normal mode when a character is selected)
m*cro$oft Management Console (MMC) Main Window Keyboard Shortcuts
CTRL+O (Open a saved console)
CTRL+N (Open a new console)
CTRL+S (Save the open console)
CTRL+M (Add or remove a console item)
CTRL+W (Open a new window)
F5 key (Update the content of all console windows)
ALT+SPACEBAR (Display the MMC window menu)
ALT+F4 (Close the console)
ALT+A (Display the Action menu)
ALT+V (Display the View menu)
ALT+F (Display the File menu)
ALT+O (Display the Favorites menu)
MMC Console Window Keyboard Shortcuts
CTRL+P (Print the current page or active pane)
ALT+Minus sign (-) (Display the window menu for the active console window)
SHIFT+F10 (Display the Action shortcut menu for the selected item)
[manage]
F1 key (Open the Help topic, if any, for the selected item)
F5 key (Update the content of all console windows)
CTRL+F10 (Maximize the active console window)
CTRL+F5 (Restore the active console window)
ALT+ENTER (Display the Properties dialog box, if any, for the selected item)
F2 key (Rename the selected item)
CTRL+F4 (Close the active console window. When a console has only one console window, this shortcut closes the console)
Remote Desktop Connection Navigation
CTRL+ALT+END (Open the m*cro$oft Windows NT Security dialog box)
ALT+PAGE UP (Switch between programs from left to right)
ALT+PAGE DOWN (Switch between programs from right to left)
ALT+INSERT (Cycle through the programs in most recently used order)
ALT+HOME (Display the Start menu)
CTRL+ALT+BREAK (Switch the client computer between a window and a full screen)
ALT+DELETE (Display the Windows menu)
CTRL+ALT+Minus sign (-) (Place a snapshot of the active window in the client on the Terminal server clipboard and provide the same functionality as pressing PRINT SCREEN on a local computer.)
CTRL+ALT+Plus sign (+) (Place a snapshot of the entire client window area on the Terminal server clipboard and provide the same functionality as pressing ALT+PRINT SCREEN on a local computer.)
m*cro$oft Internet Explorer Navigation
CTRL+B (Open the Organize Favorites dialog box)
CTRL+E (Open the Search bar)
CTRL+F (Start the Find utility)
CTRL+H (Open the History bar)
CTRL+I (Open the Favorites bar)
CTRL+L (Open the Open dialog box)
CTRL+N (Start another instance of the browser with the same Web address)
CTRL+O (Open the Open dialog box, the same as CTRL+L)
CTRL+P (Open the Print dialog box)
CTRL+R (Update the current Web page)
CTRL+W (Close the current window)

hibernation

1. press alt+f4

2. i) press shift + enter. ur pc wil hibernate
ii) hold shift button fr sum tym. ur standby optn vl change 2 hibernate optn.

Set Video as ur Desktop Wallpaper

for that u need a VLC media player

1: install it.
2: Run VLC media player
3: Go to Settings->preferences->Interface->Main interfaces,den click on wxWidgets
4: Remove de tick from "Taskbar" n put a tick on "Systray icon".
5: then go to Video->Output Modules->DirectX...
6: On the bottom right put a tick on advanced options check box.
now u will see some options....Put a tick on "Enable Wallpaper Mode "
7: Den select playlist n put a tick on "Repeat current item"
8: Click on Save button.
9: Restart ur player
10: Den play any video u wud like to set as Wallpaper
11: Right click on de video and click on "Wallpaper".
The video wud be set as ur wallpaper!!!!

Thats it !!!

For removing de wallpaper just close de player n u will get back ur original "wallpaper"

Get rid of pen drive viruses

This simple batch file. It's used prevent the computer getting the virus. It's a prevention method; not a disinfection method. But disinfect your pen drive alone. First the virus is disinfected, then opening the pen drive using explorer. It’s always good idea to open the content after deleting the virus.

00 k: [pen drive mount point]
01 attrib -s -h -r *
02 attrib -s -h -r /S /D *exe
03 del *inf
04 del new*exe
05 del reg*exe
06 del *ill*vbs
07 explorer k:\ [pen drive mount point]

in line 01 you are making the virus atribute to delete.
then deleting malwares using some wild cards, etc.,
make it as a batch file and use it to access the pen drive.



As a hacker one should capable of removing the virus manually. Not using the Anti Virus tools. Am running my computer without any antivirus nearly for 1.5 years Do you know how am managing to get rid of virus and other malwares??




Do you think it's easy to delete the virus just by delete key. Even you deleted it SOME VIRUS MAY NOT DELETE. Some virus are WRITE PROTECTED. so use this given below commands

K:\New Folder>attrib -s -h -r /S /D *exe
K:\New Folder>DEL /S *exe
Deleted file - K:\New Folder\new.exe
Deleted file - K:\New Folder\New Folder\new.exe

use wildcards and flas the extract the virus file.
Save the "any.exe" [normal your file] as "any" without extension. when using copy t sysem where you need and change extenstion byu just renaming.

use effective and simple way people. This also delets the "write-protected" virus.

How TO Change Windows To Ur Name

open notepad dump the following lines into it and save it with the name OEMINFO.INI in the c:\windows\system32 directory:

[General]
Manufacturer=Your Name Here
Model=Your Model Here
[Support Information]
Line1=Your Name Here
Line2=Your Address Here
Line3=Your Email Address Here


Save the file, then make a right click on my computer select properties, in the general tab a button will be highlighted (support information) make a click on it, you will be able to see the changes.
Now if you want to display some more information then simply increase the line in the file.
ex: Line4=Your Working Hours Here


NOTE : This information is only for awareness purpose. Im not responsible for damage or miss use of ur computer

Turn On Ur PC in 10 sec

go to RUN>REGEDIT
HKEY_LOACAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\ContentIndex

now there find the Key Called
"Startup Delay"
Double Click On It
Now where its Base
Click Decimal
Now its Default Value Is 4800000
Change The Value To 40000
here u go u have done it
now close the Registery Editor and Restart Your Computer
You'll See The Result
Comments Apriciated

Internationalized domain name

Internationalized domain name (IDN) is an Internet domain name that contains one or more non-ASCII characters. Such domain names could contain letters with diacritics, as required by many non-English languages, or characters from non-Latin scripts such as Arabic, Hebrew, Chinese or Hindi. However, the standard for domain names does not allow such characters, and much work has gone into finding a way to internationalize domain names into a standard ASCII format, thereby preserving the stability of the domain name system.

IDN has, by the standards of the Internet, a long history; it was originally proposed in 1996 (by M. Dürst) and implemented in 1998 (by James Seng under the guidance of T.W.Tan). After much debate and many competing proposals, a system called Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA [1]) was adopted as the chosen standard, and has been rolled out in several top level domains.

In IDNA, the term internationalized domain name means specifically any domain name consisting only of labels to which the IDNA ToASCII algorithm can be successfully applied. (For the meaning of 'label' and 'ToASCII', see the section ToASCII and ToUnicode below.) In March 2008, the IETF formed a new IDN Working Group to update[2] the current IDNA protocol.
Internationalizing domain names in applications

Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) is a mechanism defined in 2003 for handling internationalized domain names containing non-ASCII characters. While much of the Domain Name System can technically support non-ASCII characters, applications such as e-mail and web browsers restrict domain names to what can be used as a hostname. Rather than redesigning the existing DNS infrastructure, it was decided that non-ASCII domain names should be converted to a suitable ASCII-based form by web browsers and other user applications; IDNA specifies how this conversion is to be done.

IDNA was designed for maximum backward compatibility with the existing DNS system, which was designed for use with names using only a subset of the ASCII character set.

An IDNA-enabled application is able to convert between the restricted-ASCII and non-ASCII representations of a domain, using the ASCII form in cases where it is needed (such as for DNS lookup), but being able to present the more readable non-ASCII form to users. Applications that do not support IDNA will not be able to handle domain names with non-ASCII characters, but will still be able to access such domains if given the (usually rather cryptic) ASCII equivalent.

ICANN issued guidelines for the use of IDNA in June 2003, and it was already possible to register .jp domains using this system in July 2003 and .info[3] domains in March 2004. Several other top-level domain registries started accepting registrations in 2004 and 2005. IDN Guidelines were first created[4] in June 2003, and have been updated[5] to respond to phishing concerns in November 2005. An ICANN working group focused on country code domain names at the top level was formed in November 2007[6] and promoted jointly by the country code supporting organization and the Governmental Advisory Committee.

Mozilla 1.4, Netscape 7.1, Opera 7.11 and Safari are among the first applications to support IDNA. A browser plugin is available for Internet Explorer 6 to provide IDN support. Internet Explorer 7.0[7] and Windows Vista's URL APIs provide native support for IDN.
ToASCII and ToUnicode

The conversions between ASCII and non-ASCII forms of a domain name are accomplished by algorithms called ToASCII and ToUnicode. These algorithms are not applied to the domain name as a whole, but rather to individual labels. For example, if the domain name is www.example.com, then the labels are www, example and com, and ToASCII or ToUnicode would be applied to each of these three separately.

The details of these two algorithms are complex, and are specified in the RFCs linked at the end of this article. The following gives an overview of their behaviour.

ToASCII leaves unchanged any ASCII label, but will fail if the label is unsuitable for DNS. If given a label containing at least one non-ASCII character, ToASCII will apply the Nameprep algorithm (which converts the label to lowercase and performs other normalization) and will then translate the result to ASCII using Punycode before prepending the 4-character string "xn--". This 4-character string is called the ACE prefix, where ACE means ASCII Compatible Encoding, and is used to distinguish Punycode-encoded labels from ordinary ASCII labels. Note that the ToASCII algorithm can fail in a number of ways; for example, the final string could exceed the 63-character limit for the DNS. A label on which ToASCII fails cannot be used in an internationalized domain name.

ToUnicode reverses the action of ToASCII, stripping off the ACE prefix and applying the Punycode decode algorithm. It does not reverse the Nameprep processing, since that is merely a normalization and is by nature irreversible. Unlike ToASCII, ToUnicode always succeeds, because it simply returns the original string if decoding would fail. In particular, this means that ToUnicode has no effect on a string that does not begin with the ACE prefix.
ASCII Spoofing and squatting concerns

Main article: IDN homograph attack

Because IDN allows websites to use full Unicode names, it also makes it much easier to create a spoofed web site that looks exactly like another, including domain name and security certificate, but in fact is controlled by someone attempting to steal private information. These spoofing attacks potentially open users up to phishing attacks.

These attacks are not due to technical deficiencies in either the Unicode or IDNA specifications, but because different characters in different languages can look the same, depending on the font used. For example, Unicode character U+0430, Cyrillic small letter a ("а"), can look identical to Unicode character U+0061, Latin small letter a, ("a") which is the lowercase "a" used in English. Characters that look alike in this way may be termed homonyms, homographs, or (less ambiguously) homoglyphs.

Although a computer may display visually identical or very similar glyphs for two different characters, these differences are still significant to the computer when locating web sites or validating certificates. The user assumes a one-to-one correspondence between the visual appearance of a name and the named entity, but when two names appear identical, this correspondence breaks down.

By contrast, with the old set of a to z, 0 to 9, and the hyphen, there is little in the way of homographs. l and 1 and 0 and o are the closest, and the combination "rn" looks similar to "m" in some fonts; however, most fonts make a noticeable visible distinction between them. Still, this means even in the worst case a site like Google would still only need to register 8 names to protect against the homograph attacks.

On December 2001, two Israeli researchers, Evgeniy Gabrilovich and Alex Gontmakher, published a paper titled "The Homograph Attack",[8] an attack that used Unicode URLs to spoof a website URL. To prove the feasibility of this kind of attack, the researchers successfully registered a variant of the domain name "Microsoft.com" which incorporated Russian language characters.

In general, this kind of attack is known as a homograph spoofing attack. This problem was anticipated before IDN was introduced, and guidelines were issued to registries to try and avoid or reduce the problem – for example, recommending that registries only accept the Latin alphabet and that of their own country, not all of Unicode. Unfortunately this advice was not followed by those in control of a number of major TLDs.

On February 7, 2005, Slashdot reported that this exploit was disclosed at the hacker conference Shmoocon with an example available at http://www.shmoo.com/idn/. On browsers supporting IDNA, the URL "http://www.pаypal.com/" (where the first a is replaced by a Cyrillic а) appears to lead to paypal.com but instead led to a spoofed PayPal web site that said "Meeow."

Internet Explorer 7 imposes restrictions on displaying non-ASCII domain names based on a user-defined list of allowed languages and provide an anti-phishing filter that checks suspicious Web sites against a remote database of known phishing sites.

Since Internet Explorer prior to version 7 does not support IDNs, it is not vulnerable to this kind of attack. However, older versions of Internet Explorer can be made IDN-compatible by browser plug-ins some of which are vulnerable to the spoofing attacks. On July 9, 2005, the IDN-enabling plug-in Quero Toolbar 2.1.0 was released that implemented several anti-spoofing techniques like mixed-script detection and highlighting of characters belonging to different scripts.[citation needed]

On February 17, 2005, Mozilla developers announced that they would ship their next versions of their software with IDN support still enabled, but showing the punycode URLs instead, thus thwarting any attacks exploiting similarities between ASCII and non-ASCII letters (but not necessarily, for example, between Cyrillic and Greek letters, unless the user knows which Punycode URL corresponds to their chosen IDN URL) while still allowing people to access websites on an IDN domain. This is a change from the earlier plans to disable IDN entirely for the time being. [1]

Since then, both Mozilla and Opera have now announced that they will be using per-domain whitelists to selectively switch on IDN display for domain run by registries which are taking appropriate anti-spoofing precautions[2]. (See the article on homograph spoofing attacks for more details). As of September 9, 2005, the most recent version of Mozilla Firefox as well as the most recent Internet Explorer displays the spoofed Paypal URL as "http://www.xn--pypal-4ve.com/", unsightly but clearly different from the actual paypal.com. By contrast, the (non-existent) "http://www.xn--pypal-4ve.org" will display in the Firefox address bar as http://www.pаypal.org, as this form of domain is prohibited from registration at the Afilias registry level and therefore does not pose the same risk.

Safari's approach is to render problematic character sets as punycode. This can be changed by altering the settings in Mac OS X's system files[9].
History of IDN

* 12/1996: Martin Dürst's original Internet Draft proposing UTF5 (the first incarnation of what is known today as ACE) - UTF-5 was first defined by Martin Dürst at the University of Zürich in [3][4][5]
* 03/1998: Early Research on IDN at National University of Singapore (NUS), Center for Internet Research (formerly Internet Research and Development Unit - IRDU) led by Prof. Tan Tin Wee (IDN Project team - Lim Juay Kwang and Leong Kok Yong) and subsequently continued under a team at Bioinformatrix Pte. Ltd. (BIX Pte. Ltd.) - an NUS spin-off company led by Prof. S. Subbiah.
* 07/1998: Geneva INET'98 conference with a BoF discussion on iDNS and APNG General Meeting and Working Group meeting.
* 07/1998: Asia Pacific Networking Group (APNG, now still in existence [6] and distinct from a gathering known as APSTAR [7]) iDNS Working Group formed. [8]
* 10/1998: James Seng was recruited to lead further IDN development at BIX Pte. Ltd. by Prof. S. Subbiah.
* 02/1999: iDNS Testbed launched by BIX Pte. Ltd. under the auspices of APNG with participation from CNNIC, JPNIC, KRNIC, TWNIC, THNIC, HKNIC and SGNIC led by James Seng [9]
* 02/1999: Presentation of Report on IDN at Joint APNG-APTLD meeting, at APRICOT'99
* 03/1999: Endorsement of the IDN Report at APNG General Meeting 1 March 1999.
* 06/1999: Grant application by APNG jointly with the Centre for Internet Research (CIR), National University of Singapore, to the International Development Research Center (IDRC), a Canadian Government funded international organisation to work on IDN for IPv6. This APNG Project was funded under the Pan Asia R&D Grant administered on behalf of IDRC by the Canadian Committee on Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). Principal Investigator: Tan Tin Wee of National University of Singapore. [10]
* 07/1999 Tout, Walid R. (WALID Inc.) Filed IDNA patent application number US1999000358043 Method and system for internationalizing domain names. Published 2001-01-30 [11]
* 07/1999: [12]; Renewed 2000 [13] Internet Draft on UTF5 by James Seng, Martin Dürst and Tan Tin Wee.
* 08/1999: APTLD and APNG forms a working group to look into IDN issues chaired by Kilnam Chon. [14]
* 10/1999: BIX Pte. Ltd. and National University of Singapore together with New York Venture Capital investors, General Atlantic Partners, spun-off the IDN effort into 2 new Singapore companies - i-DNS.net International Inc. and i-Email.net Pte. Ltd. that created the first commercial implementation of an IDN Solution for both domain names and IDN email addresses respectively.
* 11/1999: IETF IDN Birds-of-Feather in Washington was initiated by i-DNS.net at the request of IETF officials.
* 12/1999: i-DNS.net InternationalPte. Ltd. launched the first commercial IDN. It was in Taiwan and in Chinese characters under the top-level IDN TLD ".gongsi" (meaning loosely ".com") with endorsement by the Minister of Communications of Taiwan and some major Taiwanese ISPs with reports of over 200 000 names sold in a week in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, China, Australia and USA.
* Late 1999: Kilnam Chon initiates Task Force on IDNS which led to formation of MINC, the Multilingual Internet Names Consortium. [15]
* 01/2000: IETF IDN Working Group formed chaired by James Seng and Marc Blanchet
* 01/2000: The second ever commercial IDN launch was IDN TLDs in the Tamil Language, corresponding to .com, .net, .org, and .edu. These were launched in India with IT Ministry support by i-DNS.net International.
* 02/2000: Multilingual Internet Names Consortium(MINC) Proposal BoF at IETF Adelaide. [16]
* 03/2000: APRICOT 2000 Multilingual DNS session [17]
* 04/2000: WALID Inc. (with IDNA patent pending application 6182148) started Registration & Resolving Multilingual Domain Names.
* 05/2000: Interoperability Testing WG, MINC meeting. San Francisco, chaired by Bill Manning and Y.Yoneya 12 May 2000. [18]
* 06/2000: Inaugural Launch of the Multilingual Internet Names Consortium (MINC) in Seoul [19] to drive the collaborative roll-out of IDN starting from the Asia Pacific. [20]
* 07/2000: Joint Engineering TaskForce (JET) initiated in Yokohama to study technical issues led by JPNIC (K.Konishi)
* 07/2000: Official Formation of CDNC Chinese Domain Name Consortium to resolve issues related to and to deploy Han Character domain names, founded by CNNIC, TWNIC, HKNIC and MONIC in May 2000. [21] [22]
* 03/2001: ICANN Board IDN Working Group formed
* 07/2001: Japanese Domain Name Association : JDNA Launch Ceremony (July 13, 2001) in Tokyo, Japan.
* 07/2001: Urdu Internet Names System (July 28, 2001) in Islamabad, Pakistan, Organised Jointly by SDNP and MINC. [23]
* 07/2001: Presentation on IDN to the Committee Meeting of the Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, National Academies USA (JULY 11-13, 2001) at University of California School of Information Management and Systems, Berkeley, CA. [24]
* 08/2001: MINC presentation and outreach at the Asia Pacific Advanced Network annual conference, Penang, Malaysia 20th August 2001
* 10/2001: Joint MINC-CDNC Meeting in Beijing 18-20 October 2001
* 11/2001: ICANN IDN Committee formed
* 12/2001: Joint ITU-WIPO Symposium on Multilingual Domain Names organised in association with MINC, 6-7 Dec 2001, International Conference Center, Geneva.
* 01/2003: Free implementation of StringPrep, Punycode, and IDNA release in GNU Libidn.
* 03/2003: Publication of RFC 3454, RFC 3490, RFC 3491 and RFC 3492
* 06/2003: Publication of ICANN IDN Guidelines for registries Adopted by .cn, .info, .jp, .org, and .tw registries.
* 05/2004: Publication of RFC 3743, Joint Engineering Team (JET) Guidelines for Internationalized Domain Names (IDN) Registration and Administration for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean
* 03/2005: First Study Group 17 of ITU-T meeting on Internationalized Domain Names [25]
* 05/2005: .IN ccTLD (India) creates expert IDN Working Group to create solutions for 22 official languages
* 04/2006: ITU Study Group 17 meeting in Korea gave final approval to the Question on Internationalized Domain Names [26]
* 06/2006: Workshop on IDN at ICANN meeting at Marrakech, Morocco
* 11/2006: ICANN GNSO IDN Working Group created to discuss policy implications of IDN TLDs. Ram Mohan elected Chair of the IDN Working Group.[citation needed]
* 12/2006: ICANN meeting at São Paulo discusses status of lab tests of IDNs within the root.
* 01/2007: Tamil and Malayalam variant table work completed by India's C-DAC and Afilias
* 03/2007: ICANN GNSO IDN Working Group completes work, Ram Mohan presents report at ICANN Lisboa meeting.[10]
* 10/2007: Eleven IDNA top-level domains were added to the root nameservers in order to evaluate the use of IDNA at the top level of the DNS.[11][12]
* 01/2008: ICANN: Successful Evaluations of .test IDN TLDs [13]
* 04/2008: IETF IDNAbis WG chaired by Vint Cerf continues the work to update IDNA [14]
* 06/2008: ICANN board votes to develop final fast-track implementation proposal for a limited number of IDN ccTLDS. [15]
Top-Level Domains known to accept IDN registration

* .ac:
* .ae
* .at:
* .biz NeuLevel/NeuStar supports Chinese, Danish, German, Icelandic, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Spanish, Swedish IDN in .biz:
* .br (May 9, 2005) for Portuguese(Brazilian) names:
* .cat (February 14, 2006) for Catalan names:
* .com
* .ch (March 1, 2004)
* .cl (September 21, 2005):
* .cn:
* .de (March 1, 2004):
* .dk (January 1, 2004), (æ, ø, å, ö, ä, ü, & é):
* .es (October 2, 2007), (á, à, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, ñ, ç, l·l):
* .fi (September 1, 2005):
* .gr (July 4, 2005) for Greek names:
* .hk (March 8, 2007) for Chinese characters:
* .hu
* .info (March 19, 2003):
* .io:
* .ir:
* .is (July 1, 2004):
* .jp (July 2003), for Japanese characters (Kanji, hiragana & katakana)
* .kr (August 2003), for Korean characters
* .li (March 1, 2004)
* .lt (March 30, 2003), (ą, č, ę, ė, į, š, ų, ū, ž):
* .lv (2004):
* .museum (January 20, 2004):
* .net: see details
* .no (February 9, 2004):
* .nu:
* .org (January 18, 2005):
* .pe (December 8, 2007):
* .pl (September 11, 2003):
* .pt (July 1, 2005) for Portuguese characters
* .se (October 2003), for Swedish characters, summer 2007 also for Finnish, Meänkieli, Romani, Sami, and Yiddish:
* .sh:
* .su (April 28, 2008)
* .tm:
* .tr (November 14, 2006:
* .tw Traditional Chinese characters:
* .vn Vietnamese:

DOMAIN NAME

In computer networking, a domain name is a name given to a collection of network devices that belong to a domain which is managed according to some common property of the members or within a common administrative boundary. In particular, the term is used to describe the regions of administrative authority within the Domain name system used for the Internet (cf. DNS zone).

Domain names are used in a variety of contexts for identification, reference, and access to Internet resources. They can appear as components of Web sites' Uniform Resource Locators (URL, 'Web-address'), e.g. www.wikipedia.org, electronic mail (e-mail) addresses after the customary '@' separator from the user's name, or as any other part of a syntax that describes an access method to a device or service in an IP network.

Domain names are created out of a naming space and methodology that was first defined by Paul Mockapetris in IETF publication RFC 882 and RFC 883 (1983) and used in the first expansion of the ARPANET, a predecessor of today's Internet. The model prescribed a tree-like structure of named nodes starting from an unnamed root node (cf. DNS root zone) that was only designated by a full stop (period, dot, "."). The complete domain name of each node is the string of names of nodes leading to the root node, each separated by a dot. The sequence is written from left to right with increasing order of scope, e.g., node-d.node-c.node-b.node-a. When the full name path of a node is specified, the domain name is said to be fully-qualified (cf. Fully qualified domain name). This condition is often, particularly in the technical aspects of DNS), indicated explicitly by appending a dot at the end of the name (to indicate the root domain).

The DNS methodology confers a unique name to every resource or service participating in the domain name system. This name is referred to as the domain name of a device or Internet host. However, not all nodes in the tree system denote a specific device, rather they are parent labels of an entire collection of subordinate nodes. Such nodes are the domains of the Internet. They represent the spaces of autonomy that are delegated by a group of service providers, called domain name registrars.

These registrars are authorized and accredited by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the organization charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to IANA, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by a sponsoring organization, the TLD Registry. The registry is responsible for maintaining the database of names registered within the TLDs they administer. The registry receives registration information from each domain name registrar authorized to assign names in the corresponding TLD and publishes the information using a special service, the whois protocol.

In this context a domain name is sometimes referred to as a 'product' sold by domain name registrars. However, the rules of assignment specify that no legal ownership is conferred with such transactions, only the right of exclusive use and the authority to the name space. Once assigned, a domain name becomes part of the pool of registered domain names and is no longer available for use by anyone else. Colloquially, marketers incorrectly refer to domain names as "web addresses", however, a web address is actually a fully specified World-Wide Web resource locator, such as http://www.example.com, actually pointing to a web site.

New domain names are usually registered through the registrar for annual terms with a minimum of one year. The maximum length of prepaid registration is often 10 years, but varies depending on the policies of the sponsoring registry of the top-level domain under which registration is sought. Registration periods may be extended, usually at any time, until the end of a grace period after the registration expiration date.

Domain names may be transferred between parties or advertised for 'sale'. This is often called the "domain name aftermarket" (see below). After a domain name registration and the grace period expire, the domain name is either returned to the pool of available names, or receives special treatment by the registrars and could possibly end up in the 'aftermarket'.[citation needed]